Social Worker Burnout Studied

Social Worker Burnout StudiedSocial Worker Burnout Studied(Fall 2003)AUTHOR-ABSTRACTFor the past 30 years, inquiryers and practitioners bugger off been fretfulnessed to the highest degree the refer of fail try go done by favorable disciplineers. Although research on burnout has been a useful field of exploration, a revolutionary concern has arisen around oeuvre stresses specifically associated with earn with victims of hurt. The concept of secondhand accidental injury posts insights into the stresses of this particular kind-hearted of work. Like the burnout research, early research on vicarious damage has identified both someoneal and giving medicational cor thinks. In this article, the authors review the growing belles-lettres on the organizational components of vicarious suffering and suggest changes in organizational culture, workload, gathering support, care, egotism-c atomic number 18, rearing, and work environs that whitethorn help prevent vicario us trauma in faculty.BODY WHETHER SHAPING PUBLIC constitution or providing go to persons, families, and communities, cordial actors are fully engaged with todays social problems. This fractious work bottom develop an emotional and psychological toll on the actor (Davies, 1998 Gibson, McGrath, Reid, 1989). This stress comes non only from responding to batch in pain and crisis characteristics of the organization in kindred manner pass to the stress (Sze Ivker, 1986). This occupational stress has been examined primarily in terms of burnout (Maslach, 1993), exclusively recent research in the field of trauma has identified stresses unique to that work. These stresses score been conceptualized as vicarious trauma (McCann Pearlman, 1990b Pearlman Saakvitne, 1995a, 1995b). To date, to the highest degree research has focused on the individual characteristics thought to contri juste to vicarious trauma. There has been little focus on the organizational structures that may contribute. In this article, we draw on the research on organizational correlates of burnout as a background for examining the research on vicarious trauma and then outline various organizational strategies suggested by practitioners works with trauma survivors to prevent vicarious trauma. This pr separatelying is informed by a qualitative study of counselors work with victims of domestic violence (Bell, 1998, 1999) that suggested the importance of the work environment, among other issues, in the turn outment of vicarious trauma. Quotations by counselors from that study will be used to expatiate the give-and-take.Organizational Correlates of BurnoutMaslach (1993) describe burnout as having three dimensions (a) emotional exhaustion (b) de individual(prenominal)ization, defined as a electro contradict attitude towards invitees, a personal detachment, or loss of i slews and (c) reduced personal accomplishment and commitment to the profession. Burnout has been conceptualized a s a process rather than a condition or state, and some have theorized that it progresses sequentially finished each of these dimensions (Maslach, 1993). Maslach and others have examined the individual, interpersonal, and organizational characteristics that contribute to burnout. Of particular interest to this discussion is the finding that organizations throne all promote job satisfaction or contribute to burnout (Soderfeldt, Soderfeldt, Warg, 1995). Unsupportive administration, lack of professed(prenominal) challenge, low salaries, and difficulties encountered in providing node services are predictive of higher burnout rates (Arches, 1991 Beck, 1987 Himle, Jayaratne, Thyness, 1986). Individual lag members suffer, and the resulting loss of haved staff pot diminish the quality of client services (Arches, 1991). This research has helped identify organizational supports that could be effective in buffering or mediating burnout and point to workplace characteristics that may likewise prevent vicarious trauma. collateral TraumaRecently, the occupational stress of social proles workings with trauma survivors has begun to receive attention (Cunningham, 1999 Dalton, 2001 Regehr Cadell, 1999). Some authors are beginning to suggest that trauma supposition has important utility in understanding the burnout subsist of social workers working in child protection and with HIV-infected populations (Horwitz, 1998 Wade, Beckerman, Stein, 1996). Many theorists have speculated that the emotional impact of this type of traumatic veridical is contagious and can be transmitted through the process of empathy (Figley, 1995 Pearlman Saakvitne, 1995a Stamm, 1995), as in this use from an experienced social worker talking almost counseling women in a family service chestSome times after a session, I will be traumatized.I will obtain over whelmed, and I can remember a particular situation with a innerly abused person where II just didnt want to hear any overmu ch of her stories about what actually happened.She seemed to want to hold to tell me those over and over and I remember just depression almost contaminated,like,you dwell,like I was abused. You know? And so I set limits withher a fter some super vision about that but bring in her in a different way.It hink it has an impact. Im just not sure of what(a squoted in Bell,1998) In the past 10 years, the emotional impact of working with trauma survivors has been examined under several constructs compassion fatigue (Figley, 1995), secondary traumatic stress (Figley, 1993 Stamm, 1995), and vicarious trauma (McCann Pearlman, 1990b Pearlman Saakvitne, 1995a, 1995b). These constructs have been compared and debated (Pearlman Saakvitne, 1995a Stamm, 1995), and a full discussion of them is outside the scope of this article. The legal age of the empirical studies in this area have used the vicarious trauma construct. For this reason, the term vicarious trauma will oecumenically be used thr oughout this article unless another term has been used specifically in the research cited.vicarious trauma has been defined as the transformation that occurs in the inner experience of the therapist or worker that comes about as a result of empathic engagement with clients trauma substantial (Pearlman Saakvitne, 1995a, p. 31). Vicarious trauma can result in physiological symptoms that resemble posttraumatic stress reactions, which may manifest themselves either in the form of invasive symptoms, such(prenominal)(prenominal) as flashbacks, night-mares, and obsessive thoughts, or in the form of constraining symptoms, such as numbing and disassociation (Beaton Murphy, 1995). It may also result in pickions to important beliefs, called cognitive schemas, that individuals hold about themselves, other people, and the ground (McCann Pearlman, 1990b Pearlman Saakvitne, 1995a, 1995b), as in the following example from a unexampled worker in a battered womens shelterI think you see the worst of people, working herethe worst of what people do to each other. And I think when you do nt have proper option stop rocess that,to work through it, to underst and it or put it in some kind of context, it just leaves you feeling a little baffle dabout whats going on out in that respect, and the way things work in the world and your role in all of that.(asquotedin Bell,1999,p.175) Although some of the numbing symptoms of vicarious trauma bear some comparison to burnout and may in fact result in burnout over time, research on therapists has also begun to prime vicarious trauma as a distinct concept from burnout (Figley, 1995 Pearlman Saakvitne, 1995a). Unlike the construct of burnout, the construct of vicarious trauma was developed from and is clinically grounded in trauma theory, specifically constructivist self-development theory (McCann Pearlman, 1990b). In several studies, burnout and general stress levels were not related to exposure to traumatized clients, where as measures of trauma exposure and vicarious trauma were related (Kassam-Adams, 1995 Schauben Frazier, 1995). Thus, burnout whole does not appear to capture the cause of trauma as an occupational stressor. Although vicarious trauma may present with elements of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment, it also has effects that are unique and specific to trauma work.Many professionals risk vicarious trauma through their contact with traumatized people or material that contains intense images of trauma. Studies have indicated that approximately 38% of social workers experience moderate to high levels of secondary traumatic stress (Cornille Meyers, 1999 Dalton, 2001). In addition, emergency workers (Leseca, 1996 McCammon, Durham, Allison, Williamson, 1988 Wagner, Heinrichs, Ehlert, 1998), nurses (Joinson, 1992), police officers (Follette, Polusny, Milbeck, 1994), sexual misdemeanour counselors (Johnson Hunter, 1997 Regehr Cadell, 1999 Schau ben Frazier, 1995), child protective service workers (Cornille Meyers, 1999), and trauma therapists (Chrestman, 1995 Follette et al., 1994 Kassam-Adams, 1995 Pearlman macintosh Ian,1995) have all been documented as developing symptomology quite similar to acute and posttraumatic stress reactions as a result of their second-hand exposure to traumatic material.Recent studies of trauma therapists have begun to explore some of the factors come to in the development of vicarious trauma. Therapist exposure to traumatic client material has been found to be an important predictor for symptoms of traumatic stress and, in some cases, of disrupted beliefs about self and others. In a survey of 148 counselors, Schauben and Frazier (1995) found that those who worked with a higher percentage of sexual violence survivors account more symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder and greater disruptions in their beliefs about themselves and others than did counselors seeing fewer survivors. The re searchers tied these symptoms of trauma counselors to a number of factors. Most commonly, counselors said that hearing the trauma story and experiencing the pain of survivors was emotionally draining. Second, many counselors snarl that the counseling process was more difficult when working with trauma survivors, who tended to have more problems trusting and working in a therapeutic kind than clients who were not traumatized. Finally, some counselors found the work more difficult because of the institutional barriers within the legal, and psychic health systems that their clients were forced to navigate. Similar findings emerged when researchers compared the stress level of sexual assault counselors with that of counselors who worked with a more general client population (Johnson Hunter, 1997). Not only did sexual assault counselors verbalise greater evidence of stress, but their work stress also contributed to personal relationship difficulties at home.The impact of the therapi sts own explanation of abuse on current report of vicarious trauma are unclear. Pearlman and MacIan (1995) reported significantly more vicarious trauma symptoms in 60% of the therapists they surveyed who reported a personal history of trauma. However, Schauben and Frazier (1995) found that counselors with a history of victimization were not more distressed by working with survivors than were counselors without such a history. Pearlman and Mac Ian found that therapists without a trauma history were more likely to report intrusive imagery than those with a history. Follette et al. (1994) found that mental health professionals with a significant history of childhood bodily or sexual abuse did not experience significantly more negative responses to child sexual abuse survivor clients than those without such a history. They also reported significantly more positive header strategies. However, the comparison root of rightfulness enforcement personnel with childhood abuse histories w ho also worked with sexual abuse survivors showed significantly more distress than the mental health professionals. The researchers hypothesized that the use of personal therapy by 59.1% of the mental health professionals versus 15.6% of the law enforcement professionals may have accounted for the difference.Increased time spent with traumatized clients seems to increase the risk of stress reactions in mental health professionals (Chrestman, 1995 Pearlman Mac Ian, 1995). Furthermore, spending time in other work activities decreases the risk. Having a more versatile caseload with a greater signifier of client problems and participating in research, upbringing, and outreach also appear to mediate the effects of traumatic exposure.Age and experience are inversely correlated with the development of vicarious trauma. Younger and less experienced counselors exhibit the highest levels of distress (Arvay Uhlemann, 1996 Pearlman Mac Ian, 1995). They may have had less opportunity to int egrate traumatic stories and experiences into their belief systems, as well as to develop effective coping strategies for dealing with the effects of vicarious trauma than have older and more experienced therapists (Neumann Gamble, 1995). Such was the case of this experienced counselor who worked with battered women in the court systemIt hink for somebody who doesnt do this type of work it would be extreme lystressful, but after twelve years, Ive justIve handled so many cases and dealt with so many people, I know my limitation back the courts limitations and I just dont get as worked up about each case as I used to.(as quoted in Bell, 1999,p.117) vicarious trauma can be run acrossed a type of occupational hap in settings where there are high levels of traumatized clients. As a result, organizations providing services to trauma victims have a practical and ethical responsibility to address this risk.Implications for business office Administrative ResponseThe primary focus of dis cussion about the bar of vicarious trauma has been on the individual (for a good summary, see Yassen, 1995). However, as with burnout, the organizational context of trauma work has been discussed as a factor in the development of secondary trauma. Several authors have written about their own experiences in agencies that serve traumatized individuals. They have suggested both prevention and intervention strategies in the areas of organizational culture, workload, work environment, education, group support, inspection, and resources for self-care. Each of these will be discussed in bout below.Organizational CultureThe values and culture of an organization set the expectations about the work. When the work includes contact with trauma, they also set the expectations about how workers will experience trauma and deal with it, both professionally and personally. Of primary concern is that organizations that serve trauma survivors, whether rape crisis centers, shelters for battered wome n, or programs that work with veterans, accognition the impact of trauma on the individual worker and the organization. As Rosenbloom, Pratt, and Pearlman (1995) wrote of their work at the Traumatic Stress Institute, We work unneurotic to develop an atmosphere in which it is considered inevitable to be affected by the work (p. 77). It is not uncommon for feelings and reactions generated by trauma to leave the social worker feeling ineffective, unskilled, and even powerless. An organizational culture that normalizes the effect of working with trauma survivors can provide a supportive environment for social workers to address those effects in their own work and lives. It also gives permission for social workers to take care of themselves. Yassen (1995) provided an example of a potentially harmful norm that can frustrate workers attempts at self-care In some settings, it may be off-key that if employees do not work overtime, they are not committed to their work, or that clinicians who do not take vacations are more committed to their work than are others (p. 201). A supportive organization is one that not only allows for vacations, but also creates opportunities for social workers to vary their caseload and work activities, take time off for illness, introduce in continuing education, and make time for other self-care activities. Small agencies cogency signal their commitment to staff by making staff self-care a part of the mission statement, understanding that ultimately it does affect client care. Administrators capability also monitor staff vacation time and encourage staff with too much accrued time to take time off. Self-care issues could be addressed in staff meetings, and opportunities for continuing education could be circulated to staff. In social work agencies, which typically operate with inadequate resources and relentless service demands, such commitments, regardless of how small, are not inconsequential.WorkloadResearch has shown that having a m ore diverse caseload is associated with decreased vicarious trauma (Chrestman, 1995). Such diversity can help the social worker keep the traumatic material in perspective and prevent the formation of a traumatic worldview (Pearlman Saakvitne, 1995a). Agencies could develop intake procedures that attempt to imbue clients among staff in a way that pays attention to the risk of vicarious trauma certain clients efficiency present to workers. When possible, trauma cases should be distributed among a number of social workers who possess the necessary skills (Dutton Rubinstein, 1995 Regehr Cadell, 1999 Wade et al., 1996). In addition, social workers whose primary job is to provide direct services to traumatized people may benefit from opportunities to insert in social change activities (Regehr Cadell, 1999). Agencies that do not already provide such services might consider providing community education and outreach or working to influence policy. Such activities can provide a sense of hope and empowerment that can be energizing and can neutralize some of the negative effects of trauma work. Organizations can also maintain an attitude of respect (Pearlman Saakvitne, 1995b, p. 170) for both clients and workers by acknowledging that work with trauma survivors often involves multiple, long-term services. Organizations that are proactive in developing or linking clients with adjunct servicessuch as self-help groups, experienced medical professionals for medication, in- and out-patient hospitalization, and resources for paying for these serviceswill support not only clients, but also decrease the workload of their staff (Pearlman Saakvitne, 1995b). Developing collaborations between agencies that work with traumatized clients can provide material support and prevent a sense of isolation and frustration at having to go it alone.Work EnvironmentA safe, comfortable, and private work environment is crucial for those social workers in settings that may expose them to vi olence (Pearlman Saakvitne, 1995b Yassen, 1995). Some work sites, such as shelters or agencies located in high-crime neighborhoods, are so dangerous that workers may actually experience primary trauma, rather than vicarious trauma. In a sample of 210 licensed social workers, Dalton (2001) found that 57.6% had been endanger by a client or member of a clients family, and 16.6% had been physically or sexually assaulted by a client or member of the clients family. Being threatened by a client or a member of a clients family was strongly correlated with compassion fatigue. Although it is more of a challenge in certain settings, protecting workers safety should be the primary concern of agency administration. Paying for security systems or security guards may be a necessary cost of doing business for some agencies that provide services to traumatized individuals. Failing that, agencies may consider developing a buddy system for coworkers so that if one worker is threatened by a client, a nother can summon the police.In addition to attention to basic safety, Pearlman and Saakvitne (1995b) have suggested that workers need to have personally meaningful items in their workplace. These can include pictures of their children or of places they have visited, scenes of nature or quotes that help them remember who they are and why they do this work. One hotline worker described her use of such an itemWhen itsare alintense call, I kind of hunch over the phone and kind of like focus here on mycomputer screenand I some times try to consciously tell my self to sit back and look at one of my pictures that I have up to remind me of happier times.(asquotedin Bell,1998)Agency administrators can encourage staff to make these small investments in their work environment. By placing inspiring posters or pictures of scenic environments (rather than agency rules and regulations) in the waiting rooms, staff meeting rooms, and break rooms, the organization can framework the importance of the personal in the professional. In addition, workers also need places for rest at the job site, such as a break room that is separate from clients (Yassen, 1995). With a space such as this, the organization could address the self-care needs of staff by providing a coffee maker, soft music, and comfortable furniture.EducationTrauma-specific education also diminishes the potential of vicarious trauma. Information can help individuals to name their experience and provide a framework for understanding and responding to it. Training settings, such as schools of social work, have a responsibility to provide this schooling to field interns entering placements where they will encounter trauma (Pearlman Saakvitne, 1995b). Dalton (2001) found that social workers with masters degrees had pull down levels of secondary traumatic stress compared with those with baccalaureate degrees. This difference suggests that the type of clinical training available in masters programs, such as informatio n about client empowerment, self-care, and recognizing destructive behaviors, may be a missing but important part of training social workers in baccalaureate programs to prevent secondary stress and vicarious trauma.Efforts to educate staff about vicarious trauma can begin in the job interview (Urquiza, Wyatt, Goodlin-Jones, 1997). Agencies have a duty to warn applicants of the potential risks of trauma work and to survey new workers resilience (Pearlman Saakvitne, 1995b). New employees can be educated about the risks and effects associated with trauma, as new and inexperienced workers are likely to experience the most impact (Chrestman, 1995 Neumann Gamble, 1995). Ongoing education about trauma theory and the effects of vicarious trauma can be included in staff training (Regehr Cadell, 1999 Urquiza et al., 1997) and discussed on an ongoing basis as part of staff meetings. Agencies can take vantage of the flourishing number of workshops on vicarious trauma at professional confe rences in social work and other disciplines by sending a staff member for training and petition that worker to dispense what he or she has learned with the rest of the staff. This information provides a useful context and helps social workers to feel more competent and have more realistic expectations about what they can accomplish in their professional role. Preparation for a stressful event, when possible, protects individuals from the effect of stress (Chemtob et al., 1990).Learning new ways to address clients trauma may also help prevent vicarious trauma. Theories, such as constructivist self-development theory (McCann Pearlman, 1990a) on which the theory of vicarious trauma is based, maintain a dual focus between past traumas and the clients current strengths and resources. running(a) from a theoretical framework that acknowledges and enhances client strengths and focuses on solutions in the present can feel empowering for client and worker and reduce the risk of vicarious trauma.Group SupportBoth the burnout literature and the writings about vicarious trauma emphasize the importance of social support within the organization (Catherall, 1995 Munroe et al., 1995 Rosenbloom et al., 1995). Staff opportunities to debrief informally and process traumatic material with executive programs and companions are helpful (Horwitz, 1998 Regehr Cadell, 1999 Urquiza et al., 1997). Critical incident stress question (Mitchell, 1983, as cited in Wollman, 1993) is a more formalized method for processing specific traumatic events but may be less helpful in managing repetitive or chronic traumatic material (Horwitz, 1998). Support can also take the form of coworkers help with paperwork or emergency backup. Time for social interaction between coworkers, such as celebrating birthdays or other events as well as unionized team-building activities and staff retreats, can increase workers feeling of group cohesion and mutual support.Peer support groups may help because peer s can often clarify colleagues insights, listen for and correct cognitive distortions, offer perspective/reframing, and relate to the emotional state of the social worker (Catherall, 1995). Group support can take a variety of forms, such as consultation, treatment teams, case conferences, or clinical seminars, and can be either peer led or professionally led. For example, shelter workers interviewed by Bell (1999) started a reading group and together read and discussed Pearlman and Saakvitnes (1995a) book, Trauma and the Therapist Countertransference and Vicarious Traumatization in Psychotherapy With Incest Survivors. The group met after work on a regular basis. Group members learned about vicarious trauma and ways to deal with it in their own work and lives. The group cost the agency nothing, did not interfere with work, and provided an opportunity for workers to give each other much-needed support. Regardless of the form group support takes, Munroe et al. (1995) warned that it sho uld be considered an adjunct to, not a interpose for, self-care or clinical supervision.There are some potential pitfalls of group support. One is the tendency toward groupthink and unison (Munroe et al., 1995). Another is that members hearing about a coworkers distress may use distancing and victim-blaming as a refutal mechanism. Peer groups and treatment teams also offer the opportunity for traumatic reenactments, such as splitting the group members into the roles of exploiter and exploited, that are so common in working with trauma survivors (Munroe et al., 1995). When groups are held within agencies, there is also the potential problem generated by conflicting roles in the group, such as a supervisor who is both supporter and evaluator or a coworker/supervisor who is also a friend. Finally, group members may be more rather than less traumatized by the necessity of hearing each others worst mutual exclusiveness stories. Guzzino and Taxis (1995) have suggested a number of ways for members of such groups to talk about their experiences without further traumatizing group members through the use of psychodrama and art therapy. To further minimize the potential for problems in support groups, Catherall (1995) has suggested that group members discuss such a possibility before it happens and normalize the experience of vicarious trauma and its impact on the individual and the group.SupervisionEffective supervision is an essential component of the prevention and healing of vicarious trauma. Responsible supervision creates a relationship in which the social worker feels safe in expressing fears, concerns, and inadequacies (Welfel, 1998). Organizations with a weekly group supervision format establish a venue in which traumatic material and the subsequent personal effect may be processed and normalized as part of the work of the organization. As one hotline worker said of the value of supervisory support in response to a stressful call Its kind of like you have th is big sack of rocks and e actually time you kind of tell someone about it you can, you know, give them a couple of your rocks and your sack gets lighter (as quoted in Bell, 1998).In addition to providing emotional support, supervisors can also teach staff about vicarious trauma in a way that is supportive, respectful, and bleak to its effects (Pearlman Saakvitne, 1995b Regehr Cadell, 1999 Rosenbloom et al., 1995 Urquiza et al., 1997). If at all possible, supervision and evaluation should be separate functions in an organization because a concern about evaluation might make a worker reluctant to bring up issues in his or her work with clients that might be signals of vicarious trauma. Dalton (2001) found that 9% of the variance in her study of social workers and secondary traumatic stress was related to supervision. Her results indicated that the number of times a worker received nonevaluative supervision and the number of hours of nonevaluative supervision were positively relate d to low levels of secondary traumatic stress. In situations where supervisors cannot separate the supervisory and evaluative functions, agency administrators might consider contracting with an outside consultant for trauma-specific supervision on either an individual or group basis. The cost of such preventive consultation might be well worth the cost savings that would result from decreased employee turnover or ineffectiveness as a result of vicarious trauma.Resources for Self-CareAgencies can make counseling resources available for all staff that interact with traumatic material (Regehr Cadell, 1999 Wade et al., 1996). If there are many employees encountering the same type of trauma in the agency or within the larger community, agencies may consider the feasibility of forming a peer support group, as discussed earlier. Workers also need health insurance that provides mental health coverage (Rosenbloom et al., 1995). followers is a quote from one young shelter worker who was see ing a therapist to deal with some of the challenges of her workIts nice to be able to talk to an other professional person, It hink, who underst and salot of the crazy things that can happen working in as helter. It hink when you try to talk with your friends about it or family, they are fright at some of the stories that you comeup with, so it help stoget feed back from an other professional who says, Oh,I know what youretalking about. Ive been there, and yes, that is very horrible.And mainly just to vent, just to be able to speak about it. To get it out, so it doesnt disrupt my life in other waysin my sleep patterns or things like that.(asquotedin Bell,1998) Wade et al. (1996) also recommended that in addition to providing resources for therapy, organizations should provide opportunities for structured stress management and physical activities. Organizations with limited resources might consider exchanging training on areas of expertise with other agencies that have experts in st ress management. Again, sending one staff member to a conference or workshop to learn stress management techniques and then asking that person to present what he or she learned to coworkers is a cost-effective way to circulate this information throughout an organization. Organizing something as simple as a walking or meditation group during the lunch hour or after work might also contribute to staff wellness at no cost.In summary, the physical and cultural environment of work may prevent or predispose social workers to vicarious trauma. Additional research is needed to understand how and to what degree social workers may be affected by the trauma they come into contact with in the workplace and which workplace variables are most salient. Furthermore, how vicarious trauma impacts the social workers relationship with clients is another fruitful area for study. Research that helps to clarify the relationship between vicarious trauma and burnout would also be useful in providing a clea rer theoretical framework from which to make agency decisions.ConclusionWorking with clients who have experienced traumatic events challenges many of the beliefs held in the prevalent culture about justice and human cruelty. Being personally exposed to these realities can take a toll on social workers emotional resources and may effect their perceptions and worldviews in fundamental ways. Personal knowledge of oppre

Approaches To Teaching EFL Writing

Approaches To Teaching EFL authorshipFeedback in compose has recently received a growing interest from SLA researchers due to its instru intellectual grapheme in warrant address education. Literature suggests that as an main(prenominal) component of style, indite acquirement in a second delivery sewer greatly advantage from teachers comments particularly in the form of indite feedback on charterers scripted increases. Previous research has investigated the role of teachers veraciousive feedback on learners written assignments (e.g., Ferris Roberts 2001, Ferris 2004 Harmer, 2001) and learners expectations on teachers fault correction in their written model (e.g., Lee, 2009 Nunan 1999 Williams, 2001). These studies suggest that for improvement of learners typography skills in a second row teacher feedback is indispensable.With this in mind, this chapter discusses the importance of feedback in development of EFL learners paternity skills in tandem with key issues and earlier studies bring upd to strict feedback in the literature. It first discusses the nature of pen as one of the four briny skills in language acquisition/learning (i.e., listening, speaking, reading, and get atup) and common draw clo names under learnn to teaching compose in EFL contexts. It then discusses what feedback entails and identifies unalike types of error correction followed by a discussion of the role of feedback in EFL education in schoolroom setting. Finally, this chapter summarizes and concludes the literature review which stands insights into understanding discover feedback practices in EFL classrooms.What is Writing?For any find turn out that involves investigation of learners written kick the bucket, it seems necessary to establish a working definition of composing. Numerous assumptions and definitions gravel been proposed to specify the concept of writing in the literature. Customarily, writing refers to a set of visible signs representing e lements of a language which are arranged brassatically. This system is referred to as writing system of the language. Coulmas (2003) defines writing as a set of visible or tactual signs procedured to represent unit of language in a systematic way, with the purpose of recording messages which stick out be retrieved by everyone who knows the language in question and the precepts by virtue of which its units are encoded in the writing system. Bryne (1979) views writing as transforming our thoughts into language a very complex skill that requires both physical and mental activity on the part of writer. Bryne (1979) further nones that writing is the last and perhaps most difficult skill learners learn if they ever do. While these definitions provide an understanding of the nature of writing and its qualities, what is obvious is the fact that writing is a complex and entreating cover that is difficult to master particularly for those who want to produce accurate and meticulous trances of writing in a second language.Among miscellaneous reasons cited for complications attri simplyed to writing, Bryne (1991) suggests three main causes that enlighten writing an weighed down task. The first, that he calls psychological trouble, is caused as a result of lack of interaction and feedback in the midst of the reader and the writer. As such, to tackle this kind of problems writers rely to a great extent to their readers feedback and evaluation of their written product. Understanding this problem is of importance for language learners to improve their writing since they pauperisation to take into account their audiences likes and dislikes. The second complexity is language re belatedlyd that is, lack of adequate lingual knowledge pr even outts us from fully monitoring what we intend to say. This shows that linguistic competence in dominantly instrumental in developing writing skills. The third problem is cognitive, whose causes can be coupled it instruction al inadequacies. This emphasizes the role of writing courses in framing learners writing abilities as well as language teachers central roles as providers of clutch input and feedback in such courses. As such, in weak of this short review on the nature of writing task and what factors might influence a second language learners attainment of this skill, it can be inferred that teaching writing can be informed by the teachers perspectives towards such a practice in instructional settings. To further illustrate this station, the next section presents cardinal of the most common approaches to teaching writing in a second language.Approaches To Teaching EFL WritingWriting as a ProductThe first approach to teaching writing, which has been known as traditionalistic approach, is product approach, which focuses on the last product, the coherent and the error-free text (Nunan, 1999).This approach has been practiced widely since the 1950s well into 1970s. Britton (199630) note that prod uct approach emphasized correct usage, correct grammar and correct spelling in the language and that it upset overwhelming attention toward field of study sentence, the various methods of developing the paragraph and the holy trinity of unity, coherence and opposite aspects of writing.Additionally, in this approach, composing is primarily viewed as a linear dish up that predictably starts with a publication selection to pre-writing activities, followed by actual writing and editing. The teacher sole(prenominal) looks at the paper when it is done.Selection of topicPre-writing activitiesWriting rewrite, editing, proofreadingFigure 1 Process Line (Product Approach)There are basically two main contacts with the product approach the written product, and the grammatical accuracy. The emphasis on written product is clear in the fact that the teacher only responds to the composition once it is finished, and not before or magic spell it is in progress. According to Jordan (199711), d uring the practice of product approach, a model is provided with various exercises undertaken for learners to be able to internalize the official patterns. Then, learners are required to product similar or parallel text. Nunan (1999) mentioned that the composing passage in the traditional approach is viewed as linear process. It proceeds systematically from the planning or prewriting microscope stages, to composing stage, to the revising stage (usually nothing to a greater extent than copy-editing), and the final indian lodge of payment stage, with the writer progressing from one stage to the next without backtracking. The valet of writing handed in by the learners is the final text and is supposed to be his/her best piece of work where further revision in not motivationed. The feedback and correction made on the texts by the teachers would not make any difference at this stage. The focus of this approach is on the final, the coherent, error-free text, thus it is also known as the product oriented approach (Nunan 1999).As such, looking at this direct effect, the product approach does not appear to fulfill the true nature of writing. It stops short at considering writing being a skill by itself, not just a manner to attain linguistic competence. It is lacking in terms of interaction surrounded by the teacher and the text, where teachers leave only see the final product, not cognize how it was developed. Lastly, as it assumes that writing is a linear process and that learners know exactly what to write roughly in their writing, it fails to consider how learners develop their ideas and meaning.Writing as a ProcessThe second approach of teaching writing that has been dominant over the recent years and is opposed to traditional ways of teaching writing is process approach. The predominance of process approach has condition rise to the role of feedback as an essential component of writing courses. The notion of writing as process was introduced to EFL stud ies by Zamel (1976), who argued that advanced EFL writers are similar to L1 writers and can benefit from instruction emphasizing the process of writing. As opposed to the view of writing as a rejoinder of previously learned syntactic or discourse structures, the process-based approach emphasized the view of writing as a process of developing organization as well as meaning. In light of this view, maneuver strategies, multiple drafts, and formative feedback from by the teacher and/or the peers are also considered important parts of writing instruction in EFL writing classrooms.A research conducted by Zamel (1983) has revealed that composing is a non-linear, exploratory, and generative process whereby writers discover and reformulate their ideas i.e., writers often backtrack and revise from the moment they start till they finish the final draft. Writers go back and forth from one stage to other is a non-systematic way. Written texts under this approach are not treated as a final an d fixed product but as part of complex process, which is recursive. There would be many drafts written by the learners on a wizard topic and teachers would response to every draft in sound out to help improve their writing and lastly attaining the best written piece. The whole process begin by the learners writing their first draft and submitting later to their teacher for feedback. After writing their feedback on the learners essays, the teacher returns them to the learners . The learners write another draft by taking into consideration teachers feedback. The process then is repeated with draft overtaking back and forth amid the teacher and the learners. If a learners draft is still not satisfactory to both the learner himself/herself and the learners draft would be repeat. That nitty-gritty the additional draft would be the final piece of learners writing to be submitted to the teacher. Hence, what is evident here is that in traditional approach (i.e., product approach) res ponse is abandoned once, whereas in the process approach, responses would be given in many drafts. The intention is to build up learners confidence and also slowly attain the best piece of writing.In this approach, the main concern of the teacher is to help learners develop their ideas, therefore, throughout the earlier writing stages the teacher would be stressing much on content. Nunan (1999) notes that the teacher focuses less(prenominal) on a perfect final draft product than the development of successive drafts of a text. He further states that the focus in the first compositors case is on quantity quite a than quality, and writers are encouraged to get their ideas onto paper without worrying too a good deal about dinner gown correctness in the initial stages. Because of this, the traditional way of responding to a composition would not be suitable to the process writing approach. In the very(prenominal) token, Nunan (2001) clearly states how very incompatible the proces s approach is from the traditional product-oriented approach. He contends that whereas the product approach focuses on writing tasks in which the learner imitates, copies and transforms teacher supplied models, the process approach focuses on the steps involved in creating a piece of work. The primary design of product writing is then an error-free coherent text while process writing allows for the fact that no text can be perfect, but that a writer will get closer to god by producing, reflecting on, discussing and reworking successive drafts of a text. In sum, this body of literature expresss that that most scholar nowadays proponent the process approach to teaching and learning writing, and perhaps most of them would agree on this important point that good product depends on good process.What is Feedback?The term feedback in this review and incidentally in this study embraces the notions of correction, marking, evaluation and responding. It includes what Diab (2006) terms as c orrection feedback which refers to the editing type and evaluative feedback with reference to the judging type. In effect, the term feedback in this study refers to any information provided to learners about the appropriateness of their performance or the prevalent accuracy of their answers (Diab 2006). As these definitions imply, the notion of feedback on writing was traditionally understood as error department of corrections teachers made to learners writings. Hence, a brief review of the corrections customarily provided on learners writing errors is in order in the next section.Error CorrectionWhen learners cast completed their written assignments, teachers are expected to correct them. The corrections then serve to help the learners language development by showing where their knowledge is lacking. Truscott (1996) define error correction as the correction of grammatical errors for the purpose of improving a learners ability to write accurately (329). This definition can be bro adened to include lexical errors, including word choice, word form, capitalization, and typing conventions (Truscott, 1996). However, in terms of second language writing, this definition focuses on the mechanical and form- think aspects of writing and showing little concern for the organizational types of corrections made by the teachers. Thus, error correction should cover feedback on both linguistic and non-linguistic skills of writing. Non-linguistic features could include instructions on paragraph development, topic string (consistent links throughout the text to relate all parts to the topic), suitable transitions between paragraphs, inclusion body of preambles and signposts to increase the overall readability of the written work.Thus, these concepts indicate the extensiveness of the scope of error correction indicating its vital role in developing learner writing in a second language. Learners have a mental picture of how they think a certain grammar rule works, and the corre ctions should help learners to adjust that picture when they are faultn (Krashen Terell, 1985177). Many teachers look at learners errors as part of learning process. But how do we know the extent to which we can let errors recover on their own? What types of errors are to be given more attention to? Therefore, while providing corrections on learners assignments some(prenominal) essential factors should be taken into account.Hendrickson (1980) arguing that simply providing all the correct forms in learners imperfect sentences is an trial by ordeal that can be frustrating to teachers outlines four scathing learner factors that have to be considered in error correction. First, one needs to be assured of learners purpose and goals for communicating in writing. Second, the teacher must take into account the learners proficiency in the target language at any given time. The third critical factor is the teachers awareness or error types and frequencies as well as how these aspects rel ate to the learners goals. The final and in all probability the most critical factor is the learners attitudes towards the nature of correction.Feedback, whether it is given through corrections or comments, has the purpose of load-bearing(a) learners learning. Race (200595) cites four purposes for feedback (1) It should help learners to make sense of their work in some way, (2) It should clarify the need of learning by showing the learners what they should be trying to achieve what the outcome of their work should look like, (3) Its should sharpen learners willingness to learn, and finally yet importantly, (4) Feedback should motivate the learners to develop their skills.What becomes evident from the above stated aims is that feedback is highly instrumental in helping language learners improve their level of awareness in learning by making as less mistakes as possible. At the bottom of this reasoning is the fundamental belief that by making the learners aware of the error they ma ke and by getting them to act on those errors in some way, then it is believed that the learners will assimilate the mistakes and eventually not make them in future. In other words, correction is closely linked to language acquisition and particularly to the idea of accurately acquiring the language. This statement itself is making sweeping statements about everything from the quality of the feedback to the ability for learners to acquire language through the feedback we offer them. However, it seems to be the heart of why we do provide feedback. Indeed one could argue that institutions and learners demand feedback and that this is the reason why we provide it, but even these two groups fundamentally believe that correction in some way leads to language acquisition and demand it for that reason.Writers such as Ashwell (2001) have pointed out that with the increased importance of the writing process there whitethorn be other reasons for including feedback and these include improving the communicative rough-and-readyness of a given written piece. In other words we correct learners and guide learners so that the written piece they eventually produce communicates their ideas as effectively as possible. This is linked closer to feedback that looks at the content of a written piece rather than the grammatical forms within it. He also points out that an additional reason for correcting learners work is simply because formal accuracy of a written piece matters and that people generally are a lot less accepting of mistakes in written pieces.Having looked at the nature of the concept of feedback, what seems to be of importance in the classroom setting is the appropriateness of the type of feedback provided for certain purposes and for certain recipients. That is, teachers should use appropriate written feedback in order to get effective learners reaction. This goes through motivating learners employ their teachers written feedback. There are many types of writing fee dback and there are different types of learners reactions. Since every learner has his / her own personal attributes, the type of teachers written feedback given to learners will possibly affect learners state positively or negatively. Accordingly, it is central to look at these different types of teaches written feedback and their influence on learners attainments.Types of Written FeedbackEllis (2009) in his article titled A typology of written tonic feedback types suggests a variety of feedback types for correcting learners written work. He illustrates the types of feedback by examining the various options (both familiar and less familiar) from studies of written feedback that have examined the different options of feedback to date. Ellis (2009) outlines six main methods for providing written corrective feedback. This classification is also adopted to identify the types of feedback in this study. Ellis has categorized the various types of written corrective feedback into six majo r categories (see Table 2.1).Table 2.1 Categories of Written restorative Feedback (adopted from Ellis, 2009)Written corrective feedback typeDescriptionDirect CFThis occurs when the correct form is given in can of an incorrect form. It is the direct correction of error. validating CF1) Indicating only2) Indicating the specific sideIndirect CF occurs when an error is indicated but the correct form is not given. Ellisidentifies two types of indirect CF1) Indicating only is when an error is noted, such as in the margin, but the exact location is not provided.2) Indicating the specific location is when the error is underlined or given specific reference.Metalinguistic1) Error codes2) Brief grammatical descriptionMetalinguistic feedback occurs when the writer is given a linguistic clue of the error. This cantake two forms1) The use of abbreviations or error codes2) A brief grammatical explanationusually given at the bottom of the textor on an attached formThe focus of the feedback1) Foc used2) UnfocusedFeedback can take a variety of forms in the way it is given, such as the level of focus.1) Focused feedback occurs when a limited number of language features are abbreviated on.2) Unfocused feedback occurs when many or all language features are addressed in the feedback.electronicElectronic feedback occurs via computer mediated methods when a hyperlink is used to indicate an error has occurred.ReformulationReformulation occurs when a first language user rewrites or reformulates the targeted second language learners text.Due to the significance of Elliss (2009) classification of feedback types in informing the abridgment of the data and providing insights into this study the most important feedback types outlined in the proposed scheme will be illustrated in the preceding sections.Direct Versus Indirect FeedbackA first distinction in Elliss (2009) classification is made between direct and indirect feedback. Direct feedback refers to highlight the errors and providin g the correct forms to the learners. That is, the correct form is given in place of an incorrect form. Ellis (2009) states that direct feedback has advantage because it will explicit guidance for the learners about how to correct their errors. Similarly, Bartram and Walton, (1991 84) mentioned that direct corrective feedback, is implemented through underlining the errors and providing the right forms in the learners written work. Examples (1) and (2) below illustrate the direct and indirect types of feedback respectively.(1)at is healthSleeping late in night are very bad for our heelth and brain.As present in example (1), direct feedback can be provided by indication of the errors accompanied with their correct forms and explanations while in case of indirect corrective feedback, learners errors can be indicated by underlining the errors without any explanation or correcting it. This is can be done by indicating where errors are located only. Example (2) shows indirect feedback.(2) Sleeping late in night are very bad for our heelth and brain.Concurring with Ellis (2009), Ferris and Roberts (2001) suggest that direct corrective feedback is better than indirect corrective feedback with learners/writers of low levels of proficiency, but conversely, Hedge (2000) argues that the dangers of its spoon-feeding effect are that learners overlook their own role in the correction process and may become passive. This is because learners can just mechanically copy the off-the-rack correction without figuring out the reasons. To make full use of the advantages of direct feedback and indirect feedback and avoid their disadvantages, teachers can consider combining them together.Focused Versus Unfocused FeedbackA second distinction in feedback typology is made between focused and unfocussed corrective feedback. Ellis (2009) states that in focused corrective feedback much attention is given on one or two types of error which assists the learner to examine several corrections on the aforesaid(prenominal) type of error. In unfocused corrective feedback, on the other hand, the learner or the learner is asked to strike in different type of errors, which may confuse the learner focusing on the error. Focused and unfocused correction feedback can also involve all other types of feedback such as direct, indirect, metalinguistic, focused versus unfocused and electronic corrective feedback (Ellis, ibid).Written corrective feedback studies (e.g., Bitchener, Young Cameron, 2005 Truscott, 2009 Sheen, 2007) suggest that when written corrective feedback is focused it is believably to be more effective in promoting acquisition, than unfocused corrective feedback. Sheen (2007), for example, in his study using focused corrective feedback name that such approach is effective in promoting more accurate language use.In a similar vein, Sheen at el.s (2009) studied six intact language classrooms in a pre-academic non-credit EFL program in a US college. The researchers se em to be more focused on two types of written correction (focused and unfocused) and they attempted to investigate the effects in using use cock-a-hoop EFL learners accurate use of English articles, use of grammatical features other than that which is the focus of the correction and the effect for written narrative tasks without error correction on the accurate use of grammatical features other than that which is the focus of the correction. The results substantiate the effectiveness of unfocused corrective feedback on learning English articles. As such, the findings from these studies recommend the teachers to select focused feedback with one or two errors types at one time rather than selecting too many types of errors.The eccentric Of Written Feedback In EFL DevelopmentThe importance of feedback lies in quality, not frequency. There are some important aspects to consider before feedback is given. First, whether the provided feedback takes the learners development into account since demonstrating their progress through feedback can create extra motivation to work more efficiently. Motivation is an important part of feedback and lack of enough motivation can overturn learners self-esteem. Giving feedback should be about motivating learners and at the same time focus on what they need to improve. This is a difficult balance to keep (Hyland Hyland, 2001187). As such, the teacher needs to emphasize the efforts the learners made that is highlighting the learners effort rather than the outcome or the effect it has had on the teacher. There is a difference between I see that you have worked very hard, good job and I appreciate the hard work you have done As the latter suggests that the work was done for the teacher, while the former focuses on the learners effort. The learners should ascertain that they work for themselves, not for the teacher (Good and Brophy, 1994147).A second important aspect of feedback deals with whether the given feedback is based on a conscious strategy or it is provided without any consistent pattern. What this means is that teachers need to establish a consistent and conscious strategy in providing written feedback, so that learners become aware of the patterns of writing that is pointed out consistently by the teacher.However, a third aspect of feedback comes into play when tutors need to provide as various feedback as possible. Only writing Wow does not say much about the work the learners have carried out. It is better to point out the parts that are impressive and explain why. Also, disagreement is necessary because if a teacher, for example, constantly writes Good job the learners might not find it genuine and disregard it (Good Brophy, 1994147). In the same token, as Harmer (2005) contends, there are more effective ways of correcting than underlining, crossing-out and putting question marks in learners written assignments. Keeping these points in mind could help to make feedback more useful for the lea rners, and also more appreciated.Variation may also be created through different ways of providing corrections on learners works. For instance, they may use selective correction which means not correcting every mistake the learners make. For selective corrections, the learners must be told before they start writing. If a teacher announces that, for example, only punctuation will be corrected, the learners might concentrate harder and make fewer mistakes in that area. Using correction symbols may be another way adding to variation and effectiveness of correcting. This reduces the amount of red ink all over the essay, which often lowers the learners motivation. Additionally, Harmer (2005111) mentions reformulation, which means that the teacher shows how a particular sentence can be formulated in another way. That enables the learner to compare a correct version with an incorrect one. Moreover, referring to a dictionary in the feedback is yet another way to make learners learn. They ha ve to look something up with a purpose in mind. In this way, they learn as they correct. For instance, if a mistake is difficult to explain, teachers can write ask me next to it so they can explain the mistake to the learner face-to-face.The fourth and final point central to providing effective feedback is to note whether it is restricted to form or it provides insights into the content as well. Gray (2004) suggests that effective feedback should concentrate on content, rather than form check to see if the learners write fluently. Have they tried to use new words? Do they have the knowledge of going around the problems when their expression is not extensive enough? There are more aspects to look at than only grammar. Hence, it would be a misconception if teachers focus only on mechanical error correction sooner of seeking excellence in the learners writing development. With this in mind, the next section presents relevant issues in and appropriate methods of error correction in wr iting courses.In sum, this brief review indicates that in order to provide effective feedback, EFL teachers need to take into considerations different factors including learner motivation, teacher awareness of his/her feedback strategy, implementation of various types of feedback, and inclusion of both form-focused and content-related corrections in their feedback. These methods of providing feedback can be contrasted to traditional practices of error correction that focused in general on formal or grammatical aspects of language.Williams (2001) suggests two main shortcomings of traditional methods of correcting grammatical errors. First, correction of learners errors has been found to be unclear and inconsistent when it deals with teachers written feedback. Second, using the traditional methods, learners simply copy their teachers feedback correction and use it in their subsequent drafts. Majority of the learners do not take their teachers written feedback into consideration and s tudy those errors. Rewriting or copying the mistakes without recognizing the essence of the error will create a passive action preventing learners to learn from their mistake. Thus, giving the learners the correct feedback will motivate them with their writing task in a new piece of writing.2.8 Research Into Types of Feedback on Learners WritingFeedback is just one aspect of EFL education the other piece of an effective EFL learning programme would be feedback. Feedback occurs between teachers and learners in particular cultural, institutional, and inter-personal contexts, and learner responses are affected by different aspects of the context (Lee, 2009). In the context of EFL education, Lee (2009) examined learner perspectives on teacher feedback, wherein it has been established that in EFL education feedback anchored on the learners personality and personal needs are perceived to be more effective. Hence, the perception of learners with regard to feedback mechanisms often depends on the manner by which the EFL teacher conducts both assessment and feedback mechanisms.In another study, Diab (2005) examined the teacher preferences with regard to error correction and feedback. Through a thorough review of literature, Diab (ibid) was able to view that more often than not, foreign language learners have different responses to feedbacks regarding pronunciation, error correction, and the importance given to grammar and vocabulary are often different from that of their tutors. Furthermore, Diab (2005) also indicted in his article that foreign language learners are more responsive to corrective feedback, both written and spoken than tutors. This is a good point raised in the sense that effort for a successful EFL programme should not only emanate from the willingness of the learners to learn but also in the ability of the tutors to be efficient and effective in performing their functions.Hy

Effects of Cross-Cultural Exchange

Effects of Cross-Cultural re-sentencingCross-Cultural ExchangeAlex CarrCross-Cultural Exchange was a fundamental part of the development of societies. Through this form of commuting, societies were adequate to acquire knowledge from one and otherwise, and upon doing so enrich their own refinements done studying abroad. When looking at the personal effects of cross-cultural rally, at that place argon more than several(predicate) aspects of study. Some of these aspects include, untested foods organism brought to different continents, cultures being shared, the use of grey-haired land imposts in new places which havent seen the homogeneouss of much(prenominal)(prenominal) primitively and the rise of empires through elaboration.When looking at the fete of knowledge and culture throughout Europe, it is evident that this is very much a two- demeanor process. wholeness of the first role models of cross-cultural exchange, though not entirely out of filling to one cult ure, is the slave trade. Through the slave trade, in that location is for the first time, blacks in parts of the world which have never seen people of this colour before. Screens multicolour in Japan back end be seen as another casing of cross-cultural exchange, as these provide a glimpse of the first reach out made in Japan by the Portuguese. Another major exchange of culture would of course be the spread of various pietys throughout Europe, America, Asia and Africa. Christianity is the largest devotion and has been spread by influential figures. The largest example of this would be the spread of Christianity everyplace the romish Empire when Constantine became Christian which happened in 313, so although this was very wee in world recital, nonetheless it was the foundation for Christianity in Europe. Christianity itself was founded in nearly 30 AD and was followed tally to the teachings of Jesus Christ. Through the decline of the absolute form of government which in empires was a monarchy, several factors contributed to the spread of the religions that can be seen throughout the world today. As previously seen throughout autobiography close religions were regional, rather than national because it was much harder to travel, and spread the word of these religions unless preached by missionaries and such(prenominal). Buddhism spread throughout India and Hinduism spread to several other areas of India. Hinduism had a underlying influence on Southeast Asia. Christianity had the ability to grow in the Roman Empire and even beyond, it even found its way into the Middle East, and compass north Africa. Religion was, and still is possibly the most influential part of cross-cultural exchange, as it can bring nations together, or even apart.One of the most profound effects of cross-cultural exchange whitethorn very swell up be the introduction of different foods to all different parts of the world through the trade of different cultures foods. One of the most evident examples of this would be when Columbus returned from Spain in 1493, bringing with him things never before seen in Europe, such as horses, pigs, wheat, chickpeas, vegetable seeds, and fruit trees. This event sparked the trade between different continents, which allowed exotic foods to be imported. The exchange of different foods is an essential part of life, as these caused drastic changes in the usual staple foods of different countries. An example of this is tomatoes in Italy, now a staple food but once that found in the valleys of Mexico. Another major example of how essential the exchange of food is would be corn. Corn was originally from Cuba, there Columbus observed its many uses, and corn spread through the world. Corn became the main microbe of food on slave ships. Another crop that chop-chop became a very prominent food in the European diet was the potato. They were bragging(a) on land not suitable for other crops, and cheap to grow. They quickly beca me cheap food for inmates and other impoverished areas. One major way that foods are spread throughout different countries is of course through immigration. This is very evident in Canada, because the country is so ethnically diverse there can be foods from all over the world seen in Canada. Canada is a very good example of cross-cultural exchange because of the diversity that is there which has been created through their very open immigration system, which does not discriminate fit to race. Many different religions are seen in Canada, foods from all over the world, a vast number of different races, all living together in one place, all because of cross-cultural exchange and more specifically immigration.The expansion of empires in the western world was a very good example of cross-cultural exchange, as the colonies were heavily influenced by their homelands. As these new colonies were formed, religion once again played a major role in the formation of these colonies. The religion was once again of course Christianity. Early Christian philosopher St Augustine once preached regardless of colour, all people were Gods creation. This is an interesting quote, as history proves that blacks were clearly exploited, and not created as equals. There is withal the use of grizzly world traditions in new colonies, some of which arent still popular in their countries of origin, but still to date find their day by day use in the colonies now formed into independent countries. An example of this would be an old tradition which is that women whose husbands have died must wear black to mourn dates back to at least the Roman Empire. This tradition was brought from the Roman Empire into America and other countries and is a tradition which is still used on a daily basis to date. This is just one example of how cross-cultural exchange had such a large effect on the world, dating back to the Roman Empire, and still in effect today. Another prominent example is Quebec, which was originally a colony of France. Quebec became a colony of France as early as 1608, and remained so until 1867 when it joined confederation. Quebec is a French speaking province and holds many traditions brought over from France. The French that is spoken in Quebec itself is not the same as in France, but is actually slightly skewed, this is an example of how there is cross-cultural exchange. Although settlers came from France, the culture is slightly different because although old traditions were inherited, new ones were also formed, according to the new lifestyle that was being lived in Quebec. The French culture in Quebec is still very heavily preserved to date and even to such a degree that Quebec does not feel a part of Canada and would like to separate from Canada. Colonialism very much ties in with the expansion of empires, because colonialism is basically the spread of nations into new countries. Colonialism is a good example of cross-cultural exchange because when new colonie s are founded, they bring not only the traditions and culture from their homeland, but also bring new cultures from immigrants of other countries, which helps to build a much more culturally diverse country ultimately.Through the spread of exotic foods, traditions of old countries newly expanded empires, and new insightful religions cross-cultural exchange has proved to be an essential part of the development of the modern world. Without the profound effects of cross-cultural exchange the current world, as diverse as it is may not exist. Cross-cultural exchange has taught the civilization of earth many lessons some all aspects of life, most of which have been learned from and help the world to go along in a positive direction.

The candy chromatography

The dulcorate chromatographyEver wondered why candies are different semblances? legion(predicate) candies contain colored dyes. Bags of MMs or Skittles contain candies of various colors. change in candies are synthetic dyes that guide been approved by the solid food and Drug Administration (FDA). Sometimes the colors are medleys of several dyes. The labels advertise us the names of the dyes use in the candies. But which dyes are utilise in which candies? We can answer this by dissolving the dyes protrude of the candies and separating them victimisation a method called chromatography.The topic I chose to do my research root word on candy chromatography. In this experiment we will use candy chromatography to bust the different dyes in the Skittles. By doing this, this will make up which dyes engage which color in the outer coating on the Skittles.Candy chromatography is used to analyze FD and C dyes used in candy and food coloring. in any case candy chromatography can be used to break (purify) specific comp starnts from a complex mixture, based on a molecular size or late(prenominal) chemical properties and is used to identify chemicals. Highly accurate chromatographical methods are used for process monitoring. It is in this experiment we will dumbfound the FD and C dyes using piece of music chromatography. Chromatography is a technique used to separate the various components in a complex mixture solution. (Olsen, 2007 p. 1) Candy chromatography whole kit and boodle by the components in the dye stick to each other and other substances.Scientists use chromatography to analyze or examine a mixture, its components, and their relations to one another. Also to identify or determine the identity of a mixture or components based on known components. They use it to purify and separate components in order to isolate one of interest for further study. Scientists likewise use chromatography to quantify and determine the amount of the mixture and the c omponents present in the sample.Some everyday uses for chromatography are at a pharmaceutical follow its used to determine each chemical found in new product. At a hospital chromatography is used to determine alcohol levels in a patients blood stream. In law enforcement its used to compare a sample found at a crime scene to samples from suspects. In an environmental agency chromatography is used to determine the level of pollutants in the weewee supply. In a manufacturing plant chromatography is used to purify a chemical needed to make a product.Paper chromatography has two phases a stationary phase and a mobile phase. The mobile phase flows through the stationary phase and carries the components of the mixture with it. (Clark, 2007 p.1) The makeup is the stationary phase, and pee is the mobile phase.The beliefs of stem chromatography include capillary action which is the soundment of still within the spaces of a porous material due to the forces of adhesion, cohesion, and surface tension. The liquid is able to move up the filter paper because its attraction to itself is stronger than the force of gravity. Another principle is solubility which is the degree to which a material dissolves into a firmness of purpose. Solutes dissolve into solvents that have similar properties. This allows different solutes to be disjunct by different combinations of solvents. The insularism of components depends on both their solubility in the mobile phase and their differential affinity to the mobile phase and the stationary phase.In 1903 Mikhail Tswett discovered chromatography he produced a colorful separation of plant pigments through a tugboat of calcium carbonate. Chromatography became developed substantially as a result of the lam of Archer John Porter Martin and Richard Laurence Millington Synge during the 1940s and 1950s. They established the principles and basic techniques of partition chromatography, and their work encouraged the rapid development of se veral types of chromatography method paper chromatography, gas chromatography, and what would become known as high performance liquid chromatography. Since then, the technology has advanced rapidly. Researchers found that the main principles of Tsvets chromatography could be applied in many different ways, resulting in the different varieties of chromatography described below. Simultaneously, advances continually meliorate the technical performance of chromatography, allowing the separation of increasingly similar molecules.Scientists discovered that a strip of porous (full of small holes) filter paper could substitute for the pillar of absorbing powder. (Chromatography, p. 2) A drop of the mixture that was going to be separated was placed on the paper, and then one edge of the paper is souse into the solvent. The solvent then spreads across the paper when this happens the mixtures components are carried with it. In paper chromatography the distance traveled by the component is t he retention factor of the sample. The Rf value is the ratio between how far the component travels and the distance the solvent travels from a common starting point (the origin).After the components have faultless spreading across the paper, the paper needs to be dried and sprayed with reagent that changes the color of the component.Some of the pigments dissolve quicker than others, which causes them to move up the paper through capillary action into different areas. This separation allows the different pigments to be set while on the paper through color identification.Because molecules in ink and other mixtures have different characteristics (such as size and solubility), they travel at different speeds when pulled along a piece of paper by a solvent (in this case, water). For example, black ink contains several colors. When the water flows through a word written in black, the molecules of each one of the colors dribble differently, resulting in a sort of rainbow effect.Many com mon inks are water soluble and spread apart into the component dyes using water as a solvent. Components move at different speeds, so they will turn up up separated spots. These will need to be cut out and analyzed further.Candy chromatography is what we will use in our experiment to determine what really makes those colors in Skittles.

Economic Impact of the UN on World Trade in the 20th Century

Economic Impact of the UN on valet de chambre Trade in the twentieth CenturyThompson, TylerMany diverse sources went into providing an in depth response to the question, What frugal tinge did the coupled Nations take up on world handicraft in the 20th century? deuce of the most important sources used were The reconstruction of the worldwide Economy, 1945-1960 by Barry Eichengreen and supranational tune Opportunities and Ch every last(predicate)enges in a Flattening World, v. 1.0 by Mason A. carpenter and Sanjyot P. Dunung.The reconstructive memory of the planetary Economy, 1945-1960 is a historical journal print in 1993. The author, Barry Eichengreen, is really educated in both history and political rescue, receiving his masters in account from Yale University in 1978 and his Ph.D. from Yale University in 1979. He wrote this piece in an effort to fail the way that the external miserliness reacted and responded to the economic crisis caused by the Second World War. H e also analyzed the varied forces in play that caused the parsimoniousness to react the way that it did. This work is valuable because of the insight it builds to the situation beingness analyzed. Eichengreen, as a professor of history and economics, has access to a push-down store of information relating to worldwide economics. He is also very skilled at interpreting the extent to which certain forces impact the willnce. For this reason, this source gives an hi-fi everyplaceview of the worldwide rescue between 1945 and 1960. This document is limited, however, in the sense that it was written and publish before the mop up of the 20th century. This means that the document does non give insight into the rest of the century, and so it is limited in the information that it contains. Furthermore, since it was published before the end of the century, it fails to understand the long term effects of the events that occurred during the fourth dimension period.International Business Opportunities and Challenges in a Flattening World, v. 1.0 by Mason A. Carpenter and Sanjyot P. Dunung is a book written in an attempt to analyze the ever-changing transnational economy. Carpenter received his Ph.D. in 1997 from the University of Texas. He is currently a professor at the University of Wisconsin. Dunung has healthy experience in educating different cultures. Carpenters companionship of history along with Dunungs efficiency to understand multiple cultures allows them to accurately mother to conclusions rough the transnational economy. This document is valuable because it analyzes the trends in supranational economics and gives a good idea of the forces at play in transnational economics. It also shows the different ways that the fall in Nations referees the internationalistic economy. However, it is limited in the sense that instead of analyzing specific instances in which the coupled Nations interfered in the international economy, it simply disc usses ordinary trends and the habitual methods the fall in Nations uses. Because of this, the source tends to be general in its information. invent Count 470Section 2. InvestigationAccording to phrase 1 of the Charter of the fall in Nations, one of the purposes of the unify Nations is to, achieve international co-operation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character, and in promoting and backing respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion. The United Nations is an organization that seeks to maintain peaceful relations between study powers. Because of the far reach of this organization, the effects of their policies and actions confine far reaching effects socially, politically, and especially economically. Through policies that maintain peace and aiding in the negotiations of concern agreements, the United Nations has had a major(ip) positive effec t on international patronage between 1945 and 2000.Prior to the formation of the United Nations in 1945, the world economy was in disarray. During this time period, the economy saw, the almost total cessation of ruler international economic relations (Eichengreen 1). This lack of distribute along with debts from the struggle left umpteen economies in poor shape. Poverty was at an all-time high, while international GDP was at an all-time low. Many industrial countries found it difficult to import raw materials for their factories. On the other side, galore(postnominal) countries that export raw materials found it hard to meet markets to sell their goods. This general disruption of trade left many economies staggering and struggling.However, the birth of the United Nations soon saw the recovery of many economies. Trade was soon realized between countries that had just recently been at war and the international economy began to grow. World trade has a major effect on internatio nal economies as, at that place is a strong positive correlation between outgrowth in per capita income and growth in trade, (Roser). World trade managed to grow about eight percent annually from 1950 to 1965. And in fact, international GDP per capita grew at a soused rate and did not once decrease from 1960 until the end of the century. In 1960, the world GDP stood at 1.353 trillion US dollars as compargond to the 33.391 trillion US dollars that it stood at when the century ended.The United Nations has decreeed a flock of policies in order to facilitate the expansion of international trade. The UN has created a series of 10-year International Development Strategies in order to develop smaller countries that may be rich in resources and could have a beneficial impact on international trade. This plan was set into place by the common Assembly in 1960 and continued throughout the rest of the century. Furthermore, they work with agencies that, provide technical assistance and o ther forms of practical help to countries around the world. In cooperation with the UN, they help formulate policies, set standards and guidelines, foster support and mobilize pecuniary resource (United Nations). Although the United Nations is not the only organization that worked to benefit international trade in the second half of the 20th century, it was the common denominator in many instances and acted as the main organizer of other separate efforts.The post of the United Nations in maintaining peace has a major impact on international economics. According to International Business Opportunities and Challenges in a Flattening World, armed forces competitiveness can be extremely disruptive to economic activity and halt long-term economic performance. Through peace, businesses find it easier to find and hire certified workers, work with less regulations to due lack of war time restrictions, and find that international trade is made easier through easier currency exchange. Wh en countries argon at war, many qualified workers are working either in the military or in a field that ties directly to the military in order to help the war effort. Also, trade between foreign countries that are at war with each other is very difficult because there are generally greater tariffs and restrictions on trade between companies in these two areas. In general, peace is good for business and the world economy as a whole.The United Nations completed more than 20 missions all around the world between 1945 and 2000 in an effort to maintain international peace. One of the earliest examples of these missions was their role in the end of the India-Pakistan War in 1947-48. This war began when India gained its independence as a small town from England in 1947. The colony was split into India and Pakistan. However, there was considerable debate between the two over who would get control over the state of Jammu and Kashmir. This eventually led to a war that was quickly stopped due to United Nations mediation.This action had crucial impacts on international economies. India is a major exporter of oil, textiles, engineering goods, and jewelry, while Pakistan exports rice, cotton, tiles, surgical instruments, and rugs among other goods. Without the mediation of the United Nations, these two countries would have continued to fight. They would have spent valuable resources on the war instead of focusing them on producing goods for trade. This has benefited the countries that trade with them because they now have more access to the goods that these countries produce. This iodin conflict, had it not been stopped by the United Nations, would have had a serious prejudicial impact on the international economy by hurting trade and reducing both imports and exports. On a grander scale, the fact that the United Nations has form negotiations many times shows how they have had a great impact on maintaining international trade and improving international economies.Alth ough the evidence points to the United Nations as one of the major powers that influenced the growth of international economies after 1945, some historians disagree. Eichengreen claims that the Bretton forest Agreement was one of the most important policy changes that benefited economies, and this occurred without the aid of the United Nations. The Bretton Woods Agreement gave rise to the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the International Trade Organization. This immediately paved a path for the reintroduction of international trade between nations that had very recently been at war with each other.The steady growth of international economies and the continued peace between major powers indicates that the United Nations played a greater role in international economics than the Bretton Woods Agreement. Although the Bretton Woods Agreement provided immediate trade relations, there remained considerable disagreement between the British and Americans over the particular s of the Bretton Woods Agreement (Eichengreen 4). In addition, one of the organizations that the agreement created was the IMF, which along with the World Bank are, twin intergovernmental pillars supporting the structure of the worlds economic and financial order, (Carpenter). Yet, historians claim that the IMF, played little role in international monetary affairs until the end of the 1950s. The quick conversion to current account convertibility envisaged by the framers of the Bretton Woods Agreement never came to suck up (Eichengreen 4).In summary, the United Nations has had a major positive impact on international trade during the 20th century. The United Nations mediated in international conflicts multiple times in the 20th century and has also helped enact trade agreements. All of these actions have been shown to have been beneficial to the international economy based on steady GDP growth throughout the 20th century and a quick recovery from the poor international economic sit uation during which the United Nations was created.Word Count 1225Section 3. ReflectionThis investigating has been a great experience for me. I have learn a lot about the put to work of gathering information from different sources and conscription a single conclusion. When I began this assignment, I knew little about the process that historians actually go through when writing historical analytic thinking reports. I had the misconception that historians simply gather information that all seems to support a single thesis. However, I did not realize history is not black and white. This major issue is one of the biggest challenges that historians face.In my own investigation, I found that a single event could have been caused by multiple different causes. For example, The Reconstruction of the International Economy, 1945-1960 by Barry Eichengreen shows the different events that helped the economy respond to the crisis immediately avocation the Second World War. He shows that both the United Nations and the creation of different organizations such as the IMF, the World Bank, and the ITO all contributed to the economys recover. I was challenged and tasked with analyzing which factor impacted the economy the most.Encountering this in my own research showed me the importance of understanding the determine and limitations of different sources. Being able to evaluate sources and try to extract accurate information from them is the job that historians are faced with. In this way, I learned that the work of a historian involves more than just gathering and discussing information. Historians are tasked with analyzing the information they use and being able to draw conclusions based on their analysis.When I conducted this investigation, I saw this dilemma first hand. Although I had a variety of sources of information that were all credible in their own way, I had to draw my own conclusions from the sources and be able to support my ideas. I quantify this experience because I feel that I have learned not only what historians have to do, but I have also gained the skills needed. I feel that in the future I will lean on this experience as a guide to any historical analysis that I encounter. The insight I have gained from this experience is valuable and the ability to draw my own conclusions is something I will use in the future.Word Count 377Works CitedAbout Economic and Social Development. United Nations. United Nations, n.d. Web. 18 Dec. 2016. .Carpenter, Mason A., and Sanjyot P. Dunung. Challenges and Opportunities in International Business. Vol. 1.0. N.p. n.p., n.d. Print.Carpenter, Mason A., and Sanjyot P. Dunung. International Business Opportunities and Challenges in a Flattening World. Vol. 1.0. N.p. n.p., n.d. Print.The Charter of the United Nations. Washington U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1945. Print.Eichengreen, Barry. The Reconstruction of the International Economy, 1945-1960 (1933) n. pag. Print.GDP (current US$). The World Bank. The Worl d Bank, n.d. Web. 18 Dec. 2016. .Milestones 1961-1968 Office of the Historian. U.S. section of State. U.S. Department of State, n.d. Web. 18 Dec. 2016. .Ortiz-Espina, Esteban, and Max Roser. International Trade. Our World In Data. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Dec. 2016. .

Strengths And Weaknesses Of Functionalist And Conflict Theory Sociology Essay

Strengths And Weaknesses Of Functionalist And Conflict Theory Sociology examineSocial and cultural theories argon often use when studying and applying experience to loosenesss. The theories in rules of order often provide a frame institute for inquire research questions, interpreting information and macrocosm satisfactory to unc everyplace the deeper meanings and stories that atomic number 18 associated with shoot a lines, they to a fault alter citizens in the high caller to become more communicate so that we heap apply what we project learned from the research and being able to apply it in the world that we live in. Theories alike enable people to see things in new angles and perspectives and give us the cogency to make informed decisions ab knocked out(p) shimmers and how sports participation hatful be used in our lives, communities, families and societies. The six main theories used in sport take hold m all points and post overlap with each former(a) but bes ides two be going to be discussed in this study. The two theories chosen to comp ar ar functionalist guess and counterpoint surmise.Functionalist theory is a macro sociological theory that is base on the characteristics of societal patterns, structures, social carcasss and institutions much(prenominal) as family, education, religion, lei indisputable, the economy, media, politics and sport. If all these social institutions are organized and co-operate with maven another around a set of core set functionalist theorists put one over that the entire social system will function properly and efficiently. edict in functionalism has a view that it is an organized system of interrelated split that are held together by shared values and established social arrangements that garter maintain the system in being in a state of equilibrium and balance. When sociologists use functionalist theory they split it into two parts, the offset printing concept of interdependent parts is all of the social institutions (media, religion, sports, politics and frugals) and how they are linked together.In the tradition of Talcott Parsons and his conception of functional imperatives (goal attainment, adaptation, latency and integration) functionalists make do that thither are four basic system needs for some(prenominal) auberge in sports (team, clubs etc) to run smoothly and that everyone will benefit. The four principles areAdaptation In order to survive in a indian lodge it is essential that members learn to adapt to changes in the social structure and culture. slightly other important chemical element to survival is the emphasis on being physically fit as it is required for most sports.Goal Attainment This is the need of individuals to achieve societys goals finished socially accepted means. Sport is preoccupied with tracking the success and failures of its participants however it also teaches participants that if they work hard enough it will lead to vict ory meaning success.Integration Sport promotes social connections mingled with people and gives them the opportunity to co-operate with each other in a throng and a community. It also provides a feeling of social identification as well as a source of personal identity. The society mustiness(prenominal) keep itself together.Latency (pattern maintenance and tension man eonment) Each system must maintain itself in a possible state of equilibrium for as long as it can without any outside disruptive influences. many another(prenominal) forms of pattern maintenance are provided by sport primarily through participation where the participants are taught to accept an authority structure that is well delimitate for example athletes knowing that referees require the authority over them to make sure they stick to the rules of the sport.Functionalist theory in sport generally leads to the conclusion that it is touristed in society because it can maintain the values of character that he lp to preserve stability and order in social life. Functionalist theory also supports sporting policies that help and recommend the rebelth of competitive sport programmes, growing coaching education programmes, in the case of youth sport there is an establishment on criminal bureau checks and qualification checks on coaches beforehand working with younger children. The theory also supports the establishment of training centres for elect athletes so they can maintain their top-level performance and making sure to have a bun in the oven increased surveillance and drug testing so they are able to supervise and control the actions of athletes by preventing those taking drugs so they cant fishing rig their way to attaining a better sporting performance. People in society who have positions of power tend to favour functionalist theory as it is ground on the assumption that society is organised for benefiting the people in that society of equating and that in any dramatic way it s hould not be changed. While functionalist theory is a popular start out it does have some failinges.The weaknesses of functionalist theory is that it tends to lead to exaggerated accounts of positive consequences of sports and sports participation however it mistakenly assumes that there are no conflicts of interests between the different citizen groups in society such as women, people with disabilities, racial groups and people who are scotchly poor in society yet it doesnt recognise that sport can privilege or disadvantage people more than others. The theory also push asides the powerful historical and sparing factors that have influenced social events and social relationships.Functionalist theory is centered on the idea that there is a consensus in the values and norms of society and that social institutions found within a society are integrated and function together. In contrast conflict theory looks at the role of power and the inequality found throughout society and how s port is shaped by these economic forces and used by people with economical power to increase their influence and wealth. Conflict theory is based on the ideas of Karl Marx (1818 1883) which rose to importance during the 1970s because of the growing disenchantment with functionalist theory. This theory of Karl Marx views sports as being built on the foundations of economic power. In societys that are laissez-faire(prenominal) you see that relationships and social arrangements are organised around wealth, money and economic power for example in the United States its easy to point out the owners of the sport teams as they are benefiting financially from the expense of elite athletes, the coaches that work alongside the athletes and the spectators who watch the sport.Like functionalist theory conflict theory is based on the assumption that society is like a social system however conflict theory focussinges on the needs of capital quite than the general system needs. Theorists of con flict theory explain that a society which is capitalist will not be able to survive and grow without exploiting any workers for the sake of boosting financial profits they also suggest that if native changes are to be concluded in sport and society by prevailing justice and fairness they need to identify the negative consequences that sport has. Once these changes are made sport will become a source of creative energy, expression and physical well-being. People who live in capitalist economies are generally not comfortable with the assumptions and conclusions of conflict theory because they say it has a negative effect and does not fit into their ideas about society and sport as they feel uneasy with the conclusions of calling for revolutionary change in the current organisation and structure that they already have. such(prenominal) of conflict theory is directed at sports which are dominated by spectators. Conflict theorists if they had the choice they would increase the control that athletes and other sporting participants have to promote sport at local community level so that it benefits all classes of people rather than just all elite athletes. intend the working class would have more influence of sport than the comfortable class giving them more motivation for participation and eliminating profits. Many conflict theorists favour players unions that confront pro-team owners and are supporting organisations that help to guard against earth tax money being used to benefit wealthy people. ideally any public resources would be used to help aid sponsoring sports that are designed to improve physical fitness, political awareness and include placing the element of fun into activities. Conflict theorists (Leonard 1980 Rigauer2004) would also campaign for athletes at all levels to have representation with making decisions about sport in organisations so Olympians would be able to vote on policy questions that concerned the staging of the prodigious Games.Conf lict theory also has three major weaknesses. The first weakness is that the theory tends to ignore the possibility that sport in capitalist societies can and may involve experiences that give individuals and groups power. Conflict theorists talk about how sport is organised to maximise the control that wealthy people have over other members in a capitalist society. The conflict theory approach doesnt acknowledge that sport can take many forms of serving interests in the have-not society and denies that any participation in sport can be a personal creative and liberating experience that will chirk up members of society to make economic changes that will help to promote equality in exiting capitalist societies. Secondly conflict theory ignores the importance of race, ethnicity, gender, disability, age and many other factors when it comes to explaining how people want to identify themselves, how they relate to other members in the society and how they organise the social world in whic h they live. practically its leading people to overlook the possibility that inequalities and power in any society are based on factors other than economic and social class differences. Thirdly the theory assumes that all aspects of social life are determined economically and is shaped by the needs of having capital in society and profit motive. Theorists of conflict theory focus on the assumptions that of economic factors when studying sport however they tend to overlook participation and amateurish port for healthy living.Functionalist theory and conflict theory both focus on the needs of society and how sport can relate to the rapture of the system needs. The theories dont inform us about sport in perfunctory life and the ways in which people are active agents who are participating in the processes of sports and societies that are organised and changed. They both also ignore that sport and social constructions emerge in peoples everyday life when they cope to decide what is important and how they are going to collect organisation in their lives.